Chapter 5: Pastoralists in the Modern World

Answer: Nomadic tribes move from one place to another mainly in search of pasture, water and suitable climatic conditions for their animals. Their movement is seasonal and is carefully planned according to the availability of grass, water and crop residues.

In winter, many pastoral groups move to lower hills, dry forests or plains where the climate is warmer and grazing is available. In summer, when snow melts in the mountains or when some regions become too dry, they move to new grazing grounds. Pastoralists also move when pasture in one place is exhausted or when water becomes scarce.

This continuous movement has important environmental advantages. It prevents overgrazing in one area because animals do not stay in the same pasture for too long. It allows grass and vegetation to recover naturally. Animal droppings also manure the soil and improve fertility. In this way, nomadic movement helps maintain ecological balance in dry, hilly and fragile environments.

Answer:

(a) Waste Land rules: The colonial government considered uncultivated lands as “waste” because they did not produce revenue. From the mid-nineteenth century, Waste Land rules were introduced to bring such lands under cultivation. These lands were often grazing tracts used by pastoralists. When they were taken over and given to selected individuals for cultivation, pastoralists lost their grazing grounds and faced a shortage of pasture.

(b) Forest Acts: The colonial government introduced Forest Acts to control forests and protect commercially valuable timber such as deodar and sal. Forests were classified as reserved, protected and village forests. Pastoralists were not allowed to enter many reserved forests, and even where grazing was allowed, they needed permits. Their entry, exit and length of stay were regulated, which disturbed their seasonal movement and reduced access to forage.

(c) Criminal Tribes Act: The British distrusted nomadic communities because they moved from place to place and were difficult to control. In 1871, the Criminal Tribes Act classified many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists as criminal by birth. They were forced to live in notified settlements and needed permits to move out. This destroyed their freedom of movement and deeply insulted their social identity.

(d) Grazing Tax: The colonial government wanted to increase revenue, so it imposed tax on land, canal water, salt, trade goods and even animals. Pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed. They were given passes, and the number of cattle heads and tax paid were recorded. This tax became a heavy burden on poor pastoralists and made their livelihood more difficult.

Answer: The Maasai community lost their grazing lands because of colonial rule, territorial division and the expansion of cultivation and game reserves.

(i) In the late nineteenth century, European imperial powers divided Africa into different colonies. The Maasai land was divided between British Kenya and German Tanganyika.
(ii) The Maasai lost about 60 per cent of their pre-colonial lands and were pushed into a small area in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania.
(iii) The best grazing lands were gradually taken over for white settlement and cultivation.
(iv) The colonial government encouraged local peasant communities to expand cultivation, which turned many pasturelands into cultivated fields.
(v) Large areas were converted into game reserves such as Maasai Mara and Samburu National Park. Pastoralists were not allowed to enter these reserves for grazing or hunting.
(vi) As the Maasai were confined to dry areas with uncertain rainfall and poor pastures, their animals suffered during droughts, and many cattle died of starvation and disease.

Thus, colonial policies reduced Maasai grazing lands, restricted their movement and damaged their pastoral economy.

Answer: The modern world forced similar changes in the lives of pastoral communities in India and East Africa in several ways.

First, grazing lands were reduced and restricted. In India, Waste Land rules and the expansion of cultivation reduced the grazing tracts used by pastoralists. Forest Acts also declared many forests as reserved and restricted pastoral access. Similarly, in East Africa, Maasai grazing lands were taken over for white settlement, cultivation and game reserves. In both cases, pastoralists lost access to pastures that were essential for their animals.

Second, pastoral movement was controlled by law. In India, pastoralists needed permits to enter forests, and their entry, departure and period of stay were regulated. Under the Criminal Tribes Act, many nomadic groups were forced to live in notified settlements. In East Africa, Maasai herders were confined within reserves and were not allowed to move freely in search of pasture. In both regions, colonial rule restricted mobility, even though movement was central to pastoral life.

These changes caused shortage of pasture, decline in animal stock, poverty and social hardship among pastoral communities in both India and East Africa.

NCERT Activity: A possible response could be:

My child, when I was young, our people moved freely with our camels and sheep across long distances in search of pasture. Earlier, many Raikas went towards Sindh and grazed their camels near the Indus. But after Independence and Partition, the new border between India and Pakistan stopped that movement. We had to change our routes and find new grazing grounds within India.

Many of us began moving towards Haryana and other areas where sheep could graze on harvested fields. Some pastoralists reduced the size of their herds because pasture became limited. Others combined pastoral work with farming, trade or wage labour. Our old way of life did not disappear completely, but it became harder. We had to adapt to new borders, new laws and changing conditions.

NCERT Activity:

Title: Life on the Open Grasslands: The Maasai Before Colonial Rule

The Maasai were one of the most important pastoral communities of East Africa. They lived across a vast stretch of land from northern Kenya to northern Tanzania. Cattle were central to their life, economy and social status. Their wealth was measured in cattle, and their culture revolved around herding, grazing and cattle protection.

Maasai society was divided into elders and warriors. Elders formed the ruling group and took important decisions in councils. Warriors were young men responsible for defending the community and organising cattle raids. Raiding was important in a society where cattle symbolised power and wealth.

The Maasai moved with their herds in search of grass and water. This movement helped them survive dry seasons and droughts. Their customs, dress, ornaments and ceremonies reflected their close relationship with cattle, land and community life.

NCERT Activity: Students can choose any pastoral communities shown in the textbook maps and collect short information about them. Some examples are:

Gujjar Bakarwals: They are pastoralists of Jammu and Kashmir who move seasonally between the low hills in winter and high mountain pastures in summer with their goats and sheep.

Gaddi shepherds: They are found in Himachal Pradesh. They move between the lower Shiwalik hills in winter and high mountain meadows in summer.

Dhangars: They are an important pastoral community of Maharashtra. They move between the central plateau and the Konkan region according to the monsoon cycle.

Raikas: They live in Rajasthan and combine cultivation with pastoralism. They are known for camel and sheep herding in the dry desert region.

Maasai: They are pastoralists of East Africa, mainly Kenya and Tanzania. Their life is closely linked with cattle herding and seasonal movement in search of pasture and water.