Chapter 2: Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution

Answer: The social, economic and political conditions in Russia before 1905 were as follows:

Social conditions: Russian society was unequal and divided. The majority religion was Russian Orthodox Christianity, but the empire also included Catholics, Protestants, Muslims and Buddhists. Workers were divided by skill, occupation and links with villages. Peasants formed communes called mir, pooled their land periodically and wanted the land of nobles to be given to them.

Economic conditions: Russia was mainly an agricultural country. About 85 per cent of the population depended on agriculture. Industry existed only in pockets such as St Petersburg and Moscow. Most industries were privately owned. Factory workers worked for long hours, received low wages and lived in poor conditions. Women workers were paid less than men.

Political conditions: Russia was an autocracy ruled by Tsar Nicholas II. The Tsar was not answerable to parliament. Political parties were illegal before 1914. The government repressed workers, peasants and revolutionaries. During the 1905 Revolution, the Tsar allowed the creation of the Duma, but he often dismissed it and continued to rule autocratically.

Answer: The working population in Russia was different from other European countries in several ways.

(i) Russia was much less industrialised than countries like Britain, France and Germany. A very large part of the Russian population still depended on agriculture.
(ii) Russian workers were divided by skill. Metalworkers considered themselves superior to other workers because their work required more training.
(iii) Many workers had strong links with the villages from which they had migrated, while others had settled permanently in cities.
(iv) Women formed about 31 per cent of the factory labour force by 1914, but they were paid only between half and three-quarters of men’s wages.
(v) Russian workers had to work long hours. In craft units and small workshops, the working day could be as long as 15 hours.
(vi) Workers in European countries had stronger trade unions and political associations, while in Russia workers’ organisations were limited because of government repression.
(vii) Despite divisions, Russian workers did unite during strikes, especially in industries such as textiles and metals.

Answer: The Tsarist autocracy collapsed in 1917 because of political failure, economic hardship and the impact of the First World War.

(i) Russia suffered heavy defeats in the First World War. Millions of soldiers were killed, wounded or missing.
(ii) The Russian army destroyed crops and buildings while retreating, leading to severe hardship for civilians and refugees.
(iii) The war created food shortages in cities. Bread prices rose and people began to protest.
(iv) Tsar Nicholas II was blamed for military failures and poor administration. His wife, Tsarina Alexandra, was also unpopular because of her German origin and bad advisers.
(v) On 22 February 1917, a factory lockout took place on the right bank of the Neva River. Workers on the left bank went on strike in sympathy.
(vi) Women workers led strikes on 23 February, demanding bread, better wages, shorter working hours and democracy.
(vii) The government suspended the Duma, which caused further protests.
(viii) Soldiers refused to fire on demonstrators and began supporting the workers.
(ix) Workers and soldiers formed the Petrograd Soviet. Finally, military commanders advised the Tsar to abdicate. This ended Tsarist autocracy in February 1917.

Answer:
The February Revolution involved workers, women workers, soldiers, Soviet leaders and Duma leaders. It ended the Tsarist monarchy and created a Provisional Government. The October Revolution was led by Lenin and the Bolsheviks with the support of the Military Revolutionary Committee and sections of workers and soldiers. Its impact was deeper because it brought the Bolsheviks to power and led to the creation of a socialist state in Russia.

Answer: The Bolsheviks brought several important changes immediately after the October Revolution:

(i) Most industries and banks were nationalised in November 1917. Their ownership and management came under the government.
(ii) Land was declared social property. Peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility.
(iii) Large houses in cities were divided according to family requirements.
(iv) The use of old aristocratic titles was banned.
(v) New uniforms were designed for the army and officials.
(vi) The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik).
(vii) Russia withdrew from the First World War by making peace with Germany.
(viii) Later, the Bolsheviks became the only party allowed to participate in elections to the All Russian Congress of Soviets.

Answer: Kulaks were rich peasants in Russia. During Stalin’s collectivisation programme, they were accused of hoarding grain and exploiting poor peasants. Stalin believed that kulaks had to be eliminated so that modern, state-controlled collective farms could be established.

Answer: The Duma was an elected consultative parliament created in Russia after the 1905 Revolution. However, the Tsar did not allow it to become truly powerful. He dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and later changed voting laws to pack the Duma with conservative politicians.

Answer: Women workers formed about 31 per cent of the factory labour force in Russia by 1914. They were paid less than men, usually between half and three-quarters of a man’s wage. Women played an important role in strikes and protests. In February 1917, women workers led strikes that became an important trigger of the February Revolution.

Answer: Liberals were people who wanted to change society through reforms. They wanted a nation that tolerated all religions and opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers. They supported representative government, rule of law and an independent judiciary. However, they were not full democrats because they did not support universal adult franchise and did not want voting rights for women.

Answer: Stalin introduced collectivisation from 1929 to solve the problem of grain shortage. Under this programme, small peasant farms were forcibly combined into large collective farms called kolkhoz. Peasants had to work on these farms and share the profits. Many peasants resisted collectivisation, destroyed livestock and opposed state control. Kulaks were severely punished and eliminated as a class.

NCERT Activity: Students may write the speech from the point of view of a worker demanding bread, fair wages, shorter working hours, safer working conditions and democratic rights. The speech should explain that the strike was not a crime but a protest against exploitation and autocratic rule.

NCERT Activity:

Conservative paper in France: “Revolutionary Disorder Shakes Russia” — Armed Bolsheviks have seized key offices in Petrograd, threatening law, order and property.

Radical newspaper in Britain: “Workers Challenge the Provisional Government” — Russian workers and soldiers have risen against the government, demanding peace, land and bread.

Bolshevik newspaper in Russia: “All Power to the Soviets!” — The workers, soldiers and Bolsheviks have overthrown the Provisional Government and opened the path to socialist rule.

NCERT Activity: Students may write that collectivisation took away individual control over land, cattle and produce. The farmer may complain about forced joining of collective farms, loss of personal property, harsh state control and reduced freedom. Stalin’s likely response would be strict and unsympathetic. He would argue that collectivisation was necessary to increase grain production, remove kulaks and build socialism, and he might treat resistance as opposition to the state.